This article aims to highlight a section of the authors’ larger study to demonstrate the benefits of using environmental print as a cost-effective and successful stimulus material to teach print concepts and emergent literacy skills to children in under-served preschools. The article also promotes the collaboration of professionals such as Speech-Language Therapists (SLTs) with preschool teachers in under-served communities, further highlighting the need for explicit teaching practices that would benefit young children’s emergent literacy development. The concepts of environmental print and under-served preschools will be explored further in more detail.

Environmental print is the print that is found in public spaces (e.g. road signs, billboards), shopping areas (e.g. brand labels, restaurant signs, logos) and can extend into the school or work areas (e.g. posters) (Neuman & Celano, 2001; Neumann, Hood, & Ford, 2013; Vera, 2007). Environmental print can be a particularly valuable tool for use as a stimulus, encouraging the development of certain language skills and emergent literacy in young children. Environmental print is cost-effective, easily accessible and has frequent occurrences outside the classroom. Its availability outside the classroom allows parents to continue stimulating what their child had learned at school, consolidating their learning. Cost-effectiveness becomes a pivotal aspect when considering interventions to address teaching of emergent literacy skills in the South African context, as socioeconomic disparities are evident in our society.

Continuing inequalities in socioeconomic status, lack of access to a variety of resources for language and literacy learning in the classroom and even limited access to learning in one’s first language exist across South African communities (Graven, 2013). Such inequalities leave many children in South Africa at risk for spoken language and literacy developmental delays, which hinder their progress in education, placing them at risk (Fernald, Marchman, & Wiesleder, 2013; Hoff, 2006). Furthermore, the aftermath of apartheid and its effects that the majority of South Africans continue to face implies that socioeconomic status is multi-dimensional. Thus, describing the middle socioeconomic class can become complex, as it depends on the perspective and interpretation of the reader (Burger, Steenekamp, Zoch, & Van der Berg, 2014; Schotte, Zizzamia, & Leibbrandt, 2017; Schutte, 2018). Perspective taking, often makes it challenging to determine the potential influence of socioeconomic status on spoken language and literacy development in the South African context. Nonetheless, it is well-documented in research internationally that socioeconomic status influences children’s development (Fernald et al., 2013; Hoff, 2006). Therefore, persistent inequalities in the South African context will negatively impact language and literacy skills, unless explicit collaborative interventions are applied to break the cycle (Graven, 2013).

Children from lower socioeconomic and under-served communities are, therefore, frequently placed in a disadvantaged position, academically and socially when compared to the same aged peers from middle to upper socioeconomic communities (Walton, Bekker, & Thompson, 2015). The term under-served applies particularly to schools or communities that are not provided with the same facilities, resources or services that are typically found in middle to upper income communities and/or schools. Children in under-served preschools repeatedly contend with lack of resources in their classrooms, especially with regard to access to age-appropriate storybooks and/or print resources as well as access to support services from SLTs (Neuman & Celano, 2001). Limited access to resources is often largely related to cost. In the case of South Africa’s under-served preschools, they often cannot afford to purchase such resources, as they are not funded sufficiently by the government (relying on fees from parents to fund their schools). Hence, environmental print becomes a viable, cost-effective resource for teaching emergent literacy skills in these contexts.

There is a continuing and urgent need for supporting learners in language and emergent literacy development in the early years in South Africa (Graven, 2013). Methods of teaching that support language and literacy development in at-risk South African children require in-depth research from all stakeholders. Similarly, reasons for and ways to address language and literacy delays require more research in the South African context. Environmental print is a resource that could be used for teaching print concepts within the preschool setting with potentially positive outcomes for promoting children’s emergent literacy development. Collaborative support from SLTs for preschool teachers is an additional measure that would promote emergent literacy development in children, attending under-served preschools.

For this study’s purpose, Vygtosky’s socio-cultural theory was selected as it underpins the language-learning approach adopted in the intervention employed. Socio-cultural theory focuses on three main areas: social interaction, the more knowledgeable partner (e.g. the adult in teacher-child interactions) and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Keenan & Evans, 2009). The emphasis Vygotsky placed on cultural and social interactions is apt for the hugely multi-cultural South African environment (Wieten & Hassim, 2016). Vygotsky’s theory advocates that the child plays an active role in his or her cognitive development together with the impact of social interactions with parents, teachers and older children who can provide invaluable guidance (Wieten & Hassim, 2016). The ZPD is defined as the distance between what children can do by themselves and the concepts and skills they can learn with the assistance from adults (Levey, 2014). Adult individuals aside from parents also include teachers, who play an important role in child development in the early years, within the school environment.

For the purpose of this article, results presented relate specifically to the intervention sessions and the pre- and post-test data on the CAP assessment. Results from pre- and post-testing demonstrated statistically significant increases in scores on the CAP assessment in the intervention group compared with the comparison group. The comparison group did not display statistically significant increases in CAP scores over the same period of time.

An outline of the 12 intervention sessions in terms of activities and materials used is provided (Table 3).

The intervention sessions planned weekly, with the teacher were presented (Table 3). Each session utilised environmental print materials as well as explicit instruction of the concepts taught in each session. The pre- and post-testing scores for CAP across both groups of children (with children 1 to 19 representing the intervention group and children 21 to 32 representing the comparison group) are displayed (Figure 3).

Gains at post-testing appeared more frequently amongst the intervention group when compared with the comparison group children as shown (Figure 3). This was confirmed via the paired sample t-tests; the p values for the null hypotheses are demonstrated (Table 4).

For the intervention group children, the null hypothesis was that the mean CAP scores at pre- and post-testing were equal. The alternative hypothesis was that the mean CAP score at post-testing was higher than the mean CAP score at pre-testing (one-tailed test). Using the data, the null hypothesis was rejected at even a 1% level of significance (0.000077 < 0.01) as shown (Table 4). From the data, it can be concluded that the mean CAP score at post-testing was greater than the mean CAP score at pre-testing amongst the intervention group children. A paired two-sample t-test was used to test whether the mean CAP score at post-testing is higher than the mean CAP score at pre-testing amongst the comparison group children. The null hypothesis was that the mean CAP scores at pre- and post-testing were equal. The alternative hypothesis was that the mean CAP score at post-testing was higher than the mean CAP score at pre-testing (one-tailed test). Using the data, the null hypothesis could not be rejected at even a 10% level of significance (0.4195 > 0.1) as shown (Table 4). There was, therefore, insufficient evidence to suggest that the mean CAP score at post-testing was greater than the mean CAP score at pre-testing amongst the comparison group children.

The comparison group children did not make similar gains in CAP scores within the same time frame as the intervention group children. Again, one can deduce that the increases that the intervention group children presented with on the CAP assessment at post-testing may be attributed to the intervention. Both the classrooms of the intervention and comparison groups displayed some environmental print in the form of posters, often hand-made ones. According to Reutzel et al. (2003), it is not enough to simply display environmental print in the classroom; rather one needs to explicitly teach children to apply word study, decoding skills and phoneme-grapheme knowledge using the environmental print as a material. Explicit instruction using environmental print was included in the intervention (Table 3). This particular interpretation, along with other salient topics is included in the discussion section.

Using environmental print was an effective means to sourcing cost-effective materials to teach pivotal print concepts (refer to Table 3 for intervention details). The environmental print that was used within the intervention comprised of materials that the teachers and learners collected or was readily available in the classroom (e.g. posters). The teacher and the researcher were able to maintain a cost-effective approach by becoming resourceful with what was available to the intervention at no financial cost (Vally, 2012). Environmental print is cost-effective because one can source materials by recycling packaging goods (e.g. cans, cereal boxes, bottles amongst others) or view it at no cost in the form of public signs. Environmental print allows children to learn the variables of print concepts (listed on p. 2) with a similar efficacy to traditional print resources (e.g. storybooks) (Neuman et al., 2013).

It is already known that children in under-served preschools often face lack of resources in their classrooms (e.g. age-appropriate storybooks and/or print resources) (Neuman & Celano, 2001). Both schools had few print resources in the form of printed and hand-made posters; however, the teachers were not maximising the print materials’ inclusion at pre-intervention. The researcher through collaboration had the opportunity to foster resourcefulness in collecting the environmental print material for teaching language and emergent literacy skills. Teachers and learners collected materials by recycling empty packages, boxes, cans or similar materials from their homes and schools (refer to Table 3 and Figure 4 for examples).

Using environmental print created a viable opportunity to use print that the children would likely encounter again outside of the intervention, lending to the high impact on recognition that environmental print offers (Neumann et al., 2013; Vera, 2007). Carryover of some of the lesson content to the home environment was observed when parents began reporting to the intervention teacher that their children were asking questions, drawing attention to and making statements about print they saw at home and in shopping areas particularly (e.g. brand labels, shopping lists, print found on bank notes or coins).

Consequently, the intervention teacher was presented with the opportunity to talk to parents about what materials she was using in the classroom, as the children had initiated conversations and interactions outside the classroom with their parents about their lesson content. Teacher and parent partnership holds an important influence over a child’s learning as well as the teacher and school as a whole (Henderson & Berla, 1994). Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems and Doan Holbeim (2005) noted that significant interactions between parents and teachers positively influence a child’s efforts, concentration and school attendance. Hence, the increased interaction of the intervention teacher with parents should be seen as a positive gain. It is important to reiterate that it was not merely the presence of the environmental print that made the children’s gains possible but the teacher’s purposeful and explicit use of the material and teaching technique.

Instruction, therefore, needs to be explicit and intentional. The intervention group children experienced an intervention where their teacher used more explicit instruction on skills relating to concepts about how print works and phonological awareness skills as opposed to the comparison group children within this particular time frame (see Table 4). Moonsamy and Carolus (2019) found, similarly, an increase in CAP scores at post-testing following a literacy intervention programme with South African ECD or preschool teachers. In this particular study, the researcher collaborated with teachers to promote explicit instruction on print concepts through varied reading strategies. Hence, Moonsamy and Carolus (2019) further promoted not only the need for explicit instruction but also the benefits of SLTs and teacher collaboration. Moonsamy and Carolus (2019) used storybooks as the resource for explicit instruction whilst Neumann et al. (2013) and Vera (2007) found that CAP scores amongst their participants also increased at post-testing following environmental print interventions, specifically. These examples of explicit instruction and purposeful interaction with environmental print materials support the argument of the current study that collaborating with the teacher on environmental print creates opportunities for children to promote their emergent literacy skills.

Environmental print materials as an educational tool have shown the possibilities of a resource that is cost-effective, flexible in its use for multiple activities and relevant to the group of children who collect the materials from their own direct environments. Increases at post-testing in CAP scores amongst the intervention children were statistically significant and likely attributed to the intervention as a similar trend was not observed amongst the comparison group children. These improvements demonstrated that the children were able to generalise the print concepts they had acquired via the environmental print materials to book materials (used with the CAP pre-test and post-test). A similar finding was also presented by Neumann et al. (2013) and Vera (2007). This finding reinforces the theory of the interaction within the ZPD between the teachers and the children in their classroom whilst learning print concepts. The findings also supported the theory that environmental print can be used as an effective resource for teaching preschool children print concepts successfully.

The study has revealed that collaboration between SLTs and teachers can make a positive impact on promoting language and emergent literacy skills in preschool children. The SLT’s specific knowledge and skill combined with mentoring and collaborating with teachers can contribute towards the current urgent needs surrounding maximising cognitive potential in South African preschoolers. Short-term interventions continue to show their value in stimulating literacy and language skills, as well as, promoting SLTs involvement in education. Short-term interventions create multiple opportunities for SLTs to make a positive impact with regard to promoting language and emergent literacy teaching and potentially to increase the skills in preschoolers. Environmental print offered itself as a valuable resource for teaching language and emergent literacy skills amongst the children who participated in the study. The implication of using environmental print as a teaching material should motivate professionals working in education (especially in the preschool context) to be resourceful in the face of limited traditional resources. The high impact that environmental print offers within the classroom cannot be under-estimated.

The principles of language and emergent literacy teaching continue to be at the forefront of discussion, as we address the need to maximise South African children’s cognitive potential (especially within under-served communities). The theoretical principles of the ZPD were demonstrated within the current study between the teachers and their preschool learners. Furthermore, the theory that environmental print is effective in teaching print concepts to preschool children was reinforced. This particular finding is pivotal for under-served populations that lack resources to teach print concepts (such as story books or other print resources that may be costly).

The statistically significant results of the CAP that triangulated with qualitative data were a valuable strength to this study. Having a student research assistant assist in collecting pre- and post-test data also offset potential researcher bias. In addition, the researcher (and assistants) had no previous relationship to the schools, which reduced further bias. The DSD assisting with the selection also helped to match the schools, teachers and learners as closely as possible. The researcher working closely with the DSD supports the concept of collaboration between government departments, schools and researchers, so that evidence-based practice can emerge. Furthermore, the two schools participating within the study meant that the researcher could use an intervention and comparison group design. Comparing results in this manner added validity to outcomes, as the researcher was able to infer that changes observed were likely linked to the intervention.

Whilst every effort was made to strengthen the research design, limitations did exist and should be acknowledged when considering the study’s results and interpretation. Having a smaller sample size means that results cannot necessarily be generalised to all groups of children; however, the information gained contributes to the clinical and theoretical implications. The researcher and the student research assistant were not fluent in other South African languages and this could also be seen as a limitation. However, there were multiple languages that were spoken by the children, attending this school, as they hailed from various countries in Africa.

Even though the results of the current study are not generalisable to other contexts, the findings have powerful contributions to the value of environmental print as a teaching material. Furthermore, the outcomes of the study advocate mentorship and collaboration between SLTs and teachers in ECD centres to promote preschool children’s language and emergent literacy skills. Furthermore, it contributes to advancing early intervention practices and promoting the SLT’s role in education.

Further research in this field could benefit the professions of both SLTs and preschool educators. Projects using environmental print, mentorship and collaboration performed with larger groups of participants could assist with the validity of the results. Application of multiple South African languages in short- or long-term environmental print interventions would also be valuable. In this manner, one would be able to ascertain the gains that could be made in children and teachers when they are placed in a position of advantage with their first languages.